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The critique of Buddhist practices correctly identified the major soterio-logical liturgies such as funeral chants and Buddha-recitations that made Buddhism in the Ming dynasty a popular and laicized religion. Significantly, with the exception of one remark by Ricci that mentioned the anger of the Buddhists because Christian converts were required to destroy statutes of Guanyin,70 the Jesuits in general failed to mention Guanyin even though her cult represented the most widespread form...
Anabaptism
Spiritualism had addressed the lack of visible moral reform by appealing to the living Spirit over the dead letter of scripture. Although there were strong Spiritualist currents in early Anabaptism, a stringent biblicism would separate the movement from Spiritualism by the second half of the sixteenth century. As Conrad Grebel made clear to M ntzer when he rejected singing during worship services 'Whatever we are not taught by clear passages or examples must be regarded as forbidden, just as if...
The Reformation And The Visual Arts
Bodenstein von Karlstadt, Andreas, Von Abthuhung der Bilder (Wittenberg, 1522). Calvin, John, Institutes of the Christian religion, vol. 1. Ed. John T. McNeill. Trans. Ford Lewis Battles (Philadelphia Westminster Press, i960), Book I, Chapter XI, paragraph 12, p. 112. Luther, Martin, Vom Abendmahl Christi, Bekenntnis, (1528). In Otto Clemen (ed.), Luthers Werke in Auswahl, vol. 3. 5th edn (Berlin Walter de Gruyter, i959), p. 5i4. Tanner, Norman P., SJ, Decrees of the ecumenical councils. 2...
The Radical Reformation
Baring, Georg and Fellmann, Walter (eds.), Denck, Hans. Schriften. 2 vols. (G tersloh Bertelsmann, 1955-6). Bergmann, Cornelius (ed.), Die T uferbewegung im Canton Zurich bis 1600. Quellen und Abhandlungen zur Schweizerischen Reformationsgeschichte, 2 (Leipzig M. Heinsius Nachf., 1916). Bergsten, Torsten and Westin, Gunnar (eds.), Hubmaier, Balthasar. Schriften. Quellen zur Geschichte der Taufer, 9 (G tersloh Mohn, 1962). Brauer, Siegfried and Ullmann, Ullmann (eds.), M ntzer, Thomas....
The Calvinist Reformation In Geneva
Ed. Henri Meylan, Alain Dufour et al. Travaux d'Humanisme et Renaissance (Geneva Droz, 1960- ). Calvin, John, Ioannis Calvini Opera quae supersunt omnia. Ed. G. Baum, E. Cunitz, and E. Reuss. 59 vols. (Brunswick Schwetschke, 1863-1900). Registres de la Compagnie des Pasteurs de Geneve au temps de Calvin. Ed. Jean-Francois Bergier, Robert M. Kingdon et al. Travaux d'Humanisme et Renaissance (Geneva Droz, 1962). Registres du Consistoire de Gen ve au temps de...
Ritual In Early Modern Christianity
Baumgartner, Mira (comp.), Die Taufer und Zwingli Eine Dokumentation (Zurich Theologischer Verlag, 1993). Bray, Gerald (ed.), Documents of the English Reformation (Minneapolis Fortress Press, 1994). The first and second Prayer Books of Edward VI (London J. M. Dent & Sons, 1977 reprint of 1910 edition). Hooker, Richard, Of the laws of ecclesiastical polity. Ed. R. W Church (Oxford Clarendon Press, 1905). Registers of the Consistory of Geneva in the time of Calvin, vol. 1 1542-1544. Ed. Thomas...
Christianity And Judaism
Noviter restaurata Das ist Erneuerte j dische Synagog, oder Juden-Schul, darinnen dergantze j dische Glaube, und Glaubens-Ubung sowohl offentlich als Heimlich im Gebrauch sind (Frankfurt Leipzig J. P. Kraussen, 1738). Gans, David, Zemah David A chronicle of Jewish and world history (Prague, 1592). Hebrew . Ed. Mordechai Breuer (Jerusalem Magnes Press, 1983). Luther, Martin, D. Martin Luthers Werke kritische Gesammtausgabe (Weimar H. Bohlau, 1883-). Modena,...
Chronology
1492 Spanish Reconquista completed under Ferdinand and Isabella, with surrender of Granada to Christian forces 1503 Death of Pope Alexander VI 1508 Maximilian I elected Holy Roman Emperor 1510 Luther's journey to Rome 1513 Death of Pope Julius II 1517 Publication of Martin Luther's Ninety-five Theses in Wittenberg 1519 Death of Emperor Maximilian I Charles V elected Holy Roman Emperor Debate between Martin Luther and Roman Church theologian Johannes Eck at Leipzig 1520 Swedish nobility rebel...
An era of respite 15551600
The Religious Peace of Augsburg demonstrated the failure of Emperor Charles's policy with respect to the Protestants, and he knew it. In his farewell address in 1556, Charles declared that he had sought 'to watch over Germany, my dear fatherland, and my other realms', but because Luther and other German heretics, plus other enemies, had embroiled him in 'perilous wars out of hatred and envy, I have not attained these goals to the degree that I have always desired'.12 The deal with the heretics...
New religious orders for men
Historians stress what is new in history, so the new religious orders of the Catholic Reformation attract more attention than reform movements in the older traditional orders of monks and friars. Since these older orders were much larger than most new orders, their efforts to reform probably contributed even more to reforming Catholicism. Some older orders, however, virtually disappeared. The crusading orders in Baltic lands, Spain and Portugal largely lost their reason for existence, and civic...
The Second Wave Of Protestant Expansion
Kirk, James (ed.), The second book of discipline (Edinburgh St Andrew Press, 1980). Knox, John, History of the Reformation in Scotland. Ed. William Croft Dickinson, 2 vols. (London Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1949). Benedict, Philip, Rouen during the wars ofreligion (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1981). The Huguenot population of France, 1600-1685 The demographic fate and customs ofa religious minority. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 18, part 5 (Philadelphia,...
Medieval traditions
Visitation reports from a number of European regions, dating back to the mid-sixteenth century and offering an insight into the educational levels ofthe clergy on the eve of the Reformation, record an urgent need for improvement. Much was left to be desired regarding the theological training of both the lower clergy and those theologians who, although ordained to higher orders, served merely as holders of benefices and failed to carry out their spiritual duties. Similar deficits existed...
Persecutions And Martyrdom
Allen, William , Briefe Historie of the Glorious Martyrdom of XII Reverend Priests ( Rheims Jean Foigny , 1582). Aussbund Etlicher sch ner Christlicher Geseng . . . (n.p., 1583). Chauncy, Maurice, Historia aliquot nostri saeculi martyrum cumpiis tum lectujucunda nunquam antehac typis excusa (Mainz Franciscus Behem, 1550). Circignani, Niccolo, Ecclesiae militantis triumphi sive Deo amabilium martyrum gloriosa pro Christi fide Certamina . . . ( Rome Franciscus Zannettus , 1583). Ecclesiae...
Piarists And Jesuits
With confraternities which helped the poor and taught catechism. Although the Jesuit colleges scattered through Italy did not charge tuition, they did demand that prospective students could read and write. Seldom could working-class parents pay for elementary schooling, so their children usually could not attend Jesuit schools. Here was an obvious need, and Calasanz together with some companions started a school at Rome that taught poor students the four Rs - religion, reading, writing and...
Coda
In keeping with the dominant orientation of the historiography on science and religion, this brief survey has focused mostly on the impact of religion on science, as studied especially by historians of science. It would take another kind of expertise to disentangle the role of science from among the many forces shaping changes in religion in the early modern period, but the new confidence in scientific explanation was no doubt an important factor driving the rationalization of religion and the...
The Catholic Reformation
The response of the Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation is often described as two interrelated movements. One, a Counter-Reformation that attempted to win territory and people back to loyalty to Rome and prevent further spread of Protestant ideas, and the other a reform of abuses and problems within the Catholic Church that had been recognized as problems by many long before the Protestant Reformation. Thus the Catholic Reformation was both a continuation of medieval reform movements...
Redefining Catholicism Trent and beyond
About four o'clock on the afternoon of 4 December 1563, the 235 voting members of the Council of Trent processed from the Palazzo Thun across to the cathedral where the Bishop of Catania celebrated the Mass of the Holy Spirit. There followed a vote approving overwhelmingly the five reform decrees that had been formulated in the previous weeks. Next, the full text of the doctrinal decrees that the council had approved over the last eighteen years was read out, followed by the initial paragraphs...
Kenneth Mills
I enquire in this chapter into what images of Christ, the Virgin and other saints meant to the emergence and 'fruition' of local Andean Christianities in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.1 On one level, saints were the favourite creatures of churchmen and colonial officials and thus might seem to have invited the 'withering' and 'erasure' of native Andean forms before the force, 'surveillance and discipline' of Spanish Christian impositions.2 They were approved patrons of lay groups and...
Luther and reform
The catalyst of the Protestant Reformation was the German Augustinian monk and university professor, Martin Luther (1483-1546). In the late medieval church, calls for renewal were loud and persistent and some reforms were enacted in monastic orders, in church life, and in popular movements associated with the names of John Wyclif (1384-1443) and John Hus (1369-1415). Compared with those strident voices, Martin Luther's invitation to an academic debate on the power of indulgences in 1517 was a...
Lee Palmer Wandel
The theology of Incarnation and the visual arts Any consideration of the visual arts in the Reformation must begin with the Incarnation.1 Throughout their history, Christians have struggled with what it means that, in the words of the Gospel of John, 'the Word was made flesh' (1 14, KJV). The Incarnation overthrew the opposition many different schools of classical thought, from the presocratics through the Stoics, had posited of flesh to spirit, matter to mind. For no Christian could 'flesh',...
Andrea Alciati Witch Hunts
(Apologia Dodi contra li defensori de le strie Pavia, 1506), and with Bernardo Rategno (c. 1450-1510), the chief Inquisitor of the diocese of Como, one of those responsible for the Italian persecutions raised his voice, adding many new examples to the debate (Bernard of Como, De Strigibus, 1508). There was a political rift between the church and states that tried to curb witch hunts wherever possible, for instance the Republic of Venice. This conflict was mirrored in the intellectual sphere for...
German Protestantism to the death of Martin Luther
The Smalkaldic League's life coincided with the final fifteen years of Martin Luther's life. During these years, Protestant princes and magistrates suppressed Catholic worship, expelled pastors, dissolved the convents, and redirected ecclesiastical properties to other purposes - public or dynastic established evangelical (Lutheran) doctrine as the sole norm of preaching and practice introduced reformed orders of worship and forbade all others began to form an official regime for their churches...
What I7 Discipline
The development of seignorial chapels and suburban temples. There was also the Protestant occupation of buildings that were theoretically still Catholic, or the celebration of mass within the walls of a totally isolated monastery in the middle of a Lutheran city, as in Strasbourg. The conflicts, the negotiations, and the accommodations regarding places ofworship, however, only generated part of the conflict between confessions about the symbolic use of space. It is therefore necessary to...
Protestantism and science
The historiography on science and religion originated during the early decades ofthe reception of Darwin when religious objections to the theory of evolution were intense. The debate is best known for the conflict thesis articulated bluntly by John William Draper, The History of the Conflict between Science and Religion (1874) and somewhat moderated by Andrew Dickson White, A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896). But those same decades elicited some equally...
Christianity
The Cambridge History of Christianity offers a comprehensive chronological account of the development of Christianity in all its aspects - theological, intellectual, social, political, regional, global -from its beginnings to the present day Each volume makes a substantial contribution in its own right to the scholarship of its period and the complete History constitutes a major work of academic reference. Far from being merely a history of Western European Christianity and its offshoots, the...
Music And Religious Change
Baini, Giuseppe, Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle opere di Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Rome Dalla Societa tipografica, 1828 . Luther, Martin, Table talk. Trans.William Hazlitt London Fount Harper Collins, 1995 . Robinson, Hastings ed. , The Zurich letters comprising the correspondence of several English bishops and others with some of the Helvetian reformers, during the early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1842 . Stetten, Paul von,...
Series
Congregationis de Propaganda Fide Ecclesiam Catholicam Ucrainae et Bielorusijae spectan-tia. Ed. A. Welykyi. 4 vols. Rome, P. P. Basiliani, 1953- . Bibliotheca reformatoria Neerlandica. Ed. Samuel Cramer and Fredrik Pijper. 10 vols. 's-Gravenhage M. Nijhoff, 1903-14 . Bibliotheca sanctorum, 12 vols. Rome Citta nuova editrice, 1961-9 , Index 1970 , 2 appendix vols. 1987, 2000 . Calvin, John, Ioannis Calvini Opera quae supersunt omnia. Ed. G. Baum, E. Cunitz et al. 59 vols. Braunschweig...
Gabriella Zarri
During the Renaissance and early modernperiod, female religious life emerged with extreme vivacity. Scholars agree that both the socio-economic and juridical condition of women's lives deteriorated during the Renaissance. They also agree that religion, on the other hand, provided a means for different forms of female affirmation to offset and even-out the misogynist cultural currents that were present and driven by churches.1 Socially, sanctity was valued and was pursued both by licit means,...
Nicolas Standaert
There are different ways of writing the history of the expansion of Christianity and its evangelization of the non-Christian world. The common approach is to write it from the perspective of the European missionary, whereby the process of Christianization is primarily perceived as the result of the missionary's action. Another approach is to take the receiving community as the starting point of discussion thereby emphasizing this community's role as an active participant in the conversion...
Theology and impact of reform
Martin Luther did not have a theology in the form of a coherent system that a professor would publish or deliver to students. The Reformation, however, made Luther a more comprehensive theologian than he would have become if his output had been limited to biblical lectures. For the most part, his theology was shaped by the course of reform and the opposition it provoked, and Luther realized it very well. In the preface to his German writings published in 1539, Luther boasted that the assaults...
Mikhail V Dmitriev
Throughout the Middle Ages, the relationships between Western and Eastern Christianity were characterized by two tendencies. On the one hand, there was estrangement, while on the other hand, there were the links between Rome and the Eastern churches, as well as between Catholics and Orthodox people in all European countries, that were never interrupted and sometimes even intensified. Both tendencies were reflected in the history of the Florentine Union 1438-9 , which was the last attempt in the...
Contributors
Wolfgang Behringer is Professor of Modern History at the University of Saarbr cken, Germany Philip Benedict is Professor of Church History at the University of Geneva, Switzerland. Robert Bireley, SJ is Professor of History at Loyola University Chicago, USA. Ann Blair is Professor of History at Harvard University, USA. Peter Blickle is Emeritus Professor of Modern History at the University of Bern, Switzerland. Miriam Bodiam is Associate Professor ofJewish History at Touro College, USA. Thomas...
Conclusion
At root, the radicals' disagreement with the mainline reformers was a disagreement about what was wrong with medieval Catholicism, that is, what needed reforming. For Luther, the fundamental problem was works righteousness and the oppressed conscience. The Catholic demand that sinners should earn their own salvation exceeded the ability of fallen humanity. Because of the Fall, humans endured a bondage of the will that prevented any good work untainted by sin. The greater the effort to earn...
Lactatio Virginis
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, both within the convents, where the institutional version prevailed, and without, where the charismatic aspect was rather more present, a particular form of female teaching, which we could define as spiritual maternity, was present and active as a recognized element of sanctity. It is well known, in fact, that a nun from the convent of Santa Croce in Brescia was considered mother by Gaetano da Thiene, one of the founders of the Order of the Clerics...
